Mobile BLE

Designs, implements and reviews Bluetooth Low Energy code in Android, iOS and Flutter apps: Android 12+ permissions, filtered scans, GATT operation queues, MTU, bonding, status 133, CoreBluetooth threading and state restoration, flutter_blue_plus, framing, CRC, safe firmware updates (DFU) and connection state machines. Use when writing or reviewing BLE scan, connect, read, write or notify code, reconnect logic or device protocols.

Build and review the app side of a Bluetooth Low Energy link the way a senior connected-device engineer would: correct permissions per OS version, one GATT operation at a time, no assumptions about threads, explicit connection states, framed and checked messages, firmware updates that cannot brick the device, and logs that leak nothing. A good result works on real phones, recovers from drops, and survives hostile or corrupt input.

When to use

• Writing or changing scan, connect, discover, read, write, notify or disconnect code.
• Android BLE permissions, foreground services or background work for a connected device.
• CoreBluetooth central code, background mode, state restoration or reconnect logic.
• flutter_blue_plus code, or a Flutter plugin that talks to a peripheral.
• Designing or reviewing a packet protocol on top of GATT: framing, chunking, sequence numbers, CRC.
• Firmware update (DFU) flows driven by the app.
• "Status 133", "GATT error", "writes get lost", "notifications stop", "works on Pixel but not on X".

Not for: a full MASVS audit (use mobile-security), CRA or EN 18031 mapping (use mobile-eu-compliance), general Kotlin or Swift style (use mobile-kotlin, mobile-swift).

Workflow

1. Read the device contract first. Find the firmware protocol document: services, characteristics, opcodes, packet layout, CRC variant, timing, DFU procedure. The firmware document is authoritative. If a packet format, opcode or timing is not written down, ask; never guess it.
2. Read the project setup.
   • Android: minSdk, targetSdk, manifest permissions, foreground service declarations.
   • iOS: deployment target, Info.plist usage strings, UIBackgroundModes, restoration identifier.
   • Flutter: pubspec.yaml BLE and permission plugins and their versions.
3. Load the platform reference for the code being touched: Android, iOS, Flutter.
4. Model the link as a sealed connection state machine before writing callbacks (rule 9).
5. Put every GATT operation behind one queue with a timeout per operation (rule 3).
6. Design or check the wire protocol: framing above MTU, sequence numbers, CRC, bounds checks. Use Protocol and DFU.
7. Plan background behaviour per platform: foreground service or Companion Device Manager on Android, bluetooth-central and state restoration on iOS.
8. Test with fakes behind an interface, then on real hardware. See Testing.
9. Report permissions, Info.plist keys, entitlements, foreground service types and background modes the change adds. These affect store review and signing and must be called out explicitly.

Platform facts (verified)

Area	Fact
Android 12+ (API 31)	BLUETOOTH_SCAN, BLUETOOTH_CONNECT, BLUETOOTH_ADVERTISE are runtime permissions; legacy BLUETOOTH and BLUETOOTH_ADMIN get maxSdkVersion="30"
neverForLocation	Lets API 31+ scan without location; some beacons are filtered from results
Android 11 and lower	Scanning needs ACCESS_FINE_LOCATION
Android 13 (API 33)	writeCharacteristic(c, value, writeType) returns an Int status; byte-array callbacks; old forms deprecated
Android 14 (API 34)	Stack requests ATT MTU 517 on the first requestMtu and ignores later requests
Android 14 (API 34)	Every foreground service declares a type; connectedDevice needs FOREGROUND_SERVICE_CONNECTED_DEVICE
Android 16 (API 36)	Bond loss: system keeps the bond and shows a dialog; ACTION_KEY_MISSING and ACTION_ENCRYPTION_CHANGE intents (OEM behaviour varies)
Android 17 (API 37)	connectGatt(BluetoothGattConnectionSettings, Executor, BluetoothGattCallback) added; the Context overloads are deprecated; autonomous re-pairing after bond loss
iOS 13+	NSBluetoothAlwaysUsageDescription is required to use Bluetooth
iOS	connect(_:options:) never times out; queue: nil delivers delegate calls on the main queue
iOS	Background scanning needs bluetooth-central and explicit service UUIDs
iOS 26	Per TN3115, some relaunch cases are limited to apps that set up accessories with AccessorySetupKit
flutter_blue_plus 2.x	connect takes a required license: argument; commercial use needs a paid license

Re-check these against the official pages before quoting them in a design document. Versions move.

Rules

1. Declare permissions per API level and check them before every call

xml

<!-- BAD: location requested on Android 12+ for no reason, no legacy caps -->
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.ACCESS_FINE_LOCATION" />

<!-- GOOD: app never derives location from scans -->
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH" android:maxSdkVersion="30" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH_ADMIN" android:maxSdkVersion="30" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.ACCESS_FINE_LOCATION" android:maxSdkVersion="30" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH_SCAN"
    android:usesPermissionFlags="neverForLocation" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH_CONNECT" />
<uses-feature android:name="android.hardware.bluetooth_le" android:required="true" />

swift

// BAD: CBCentralManager created at launch, before the user knows why; no usage string
let central = CBCentralManager(delegate: self, queue: nil)

// GOOD: Info.plist has NSBluetoothAlwaysUsageDescription; create the manager when the feature starts
if CBManager.authorization == .denied { state = .bluetoothDenied; return }
central = CBCentralManager(delegate: self, queue: bleQueue)

• If the app uses scan results for location, drop neverForLocation and keep ACCESS_FINE_LOCATION.
• Request runtime permissions from a screen that explains the feature. Handle "denied" with a path to settings.

2. Scan with filters, a time limit and the cheapest mode that works

kotlin

// BAD: unfiltered, low latency, never stopped
scanner.startScan(callback)

// GOOD
val filters = listOf(ScanFilter.Builder().setServiceUuid(ParcelUuid(SERVICE_UUID)).build())
val settings = ScanSettings.Builder().setScanMode(ScanSettings.SCAN_MODE_BALANCED).build()
scanner.startScan(filters, settings, callback)
scanTimeout = scope.launch { delay(10.seconds); scanner.stopScan(callback) }

• Stop as soon as the device is found. Never scan in a loop.
• Unfiltered scans stop on screen off. Apps not in the foreground get SCAN_MODE_LOW_POWER.
• Starting scans too often gets throttled: SCAN_FAILED_SCANNING_TOO_FREQUENTLY, or silently no results on some devices. The exact limit is not documented; do not restart scans in a tight loop.
• iOS: pass service UUIDs to scanForPeripherals(withServices:options:); nil does not work in background.

3. One GATT operation at a time, each with a timeout

Android and iOS both drop or reject overlapping requests. Android returns false or ERROR_GATT_WRITE_REQUEST_BUSY; the callback for the first request may never come.

kotlin

// BAD: second call fails while the first is in flight
gatt.writeCharacteristic(cmd, bytes, WRITE_TYPE_DEFAULT)
gatt.readCharacteristic(status)

// GOOD: serialized queue, completes on the callback, times out if the callback never comes
suspend fun write(c: BluetoothGattCharacteristic, value: ByteArray) =
    queue.run(timeout = 5.seconds) { gatt.writeCharacteristic(c, value, WRITE_TYPE_DEFAULT) == BluetoothStatusCodes.SUCCESS }

• Service discovery, MTU request, enabling notifications (CCCD write), reads and writes all go through the queue.
• A timeout fails the operation and usually the connection: disconnect, close, reconnect.
• Full queue implementation: Android.

4. Never assume the main thread in BLE callbacks

Android GATT callbacks arrive on a binder thread unless you pass a Handler or Executor. iOS delegate calls arrive on the queue passed to CBCentralManager, or main when nil.

kotlin

// BAD: mutates UI-facing state and a plain list from a binder thread
override fun onCharacteristicChanged(g: BluetoothGatt, c: BluetoothGattCharacteristic, value: ByteArray) {
    buffer.add(value); uiState.items += parse(value)
}

// GOOD: hand off to one serial context; StateFlow exposes the result
override fun onCharacteristicChanged(g: BluetoothGatt, c: BluetoothGattCharacteristic, value: ByteArray) {
    inbound.trySend(value.copyOf())   // Channel consumed on a limitedParallelism(1) dispatcher
}

swift

// BAD: BLE work on the main queue blocks UI during bursts of notifications
central = CBCentralManager(delegate: self, queue: nil)

// GOOD: dedicated serial queue; hop to the main actor only for UI state
central = CBCentralManager(delegate: self, queue: DispatchQueue(label: "ble.central"))
Task { @MainActor in model.apply(event) }

5. Use the value-carrying Android 13+ APIs; never read characteristic.value on 33+

kotlin

// BAD: deprecated in API 33, not memory safe, value can change under you
characteristic.value = bytes
gatt.writeCharacteristic(characteristic)

// GOOD
val status = if (Build.VERSION.SDK_INT >= 33) {
    gatt.writeCharacteristic(characteristic, bytes, BluetoothGattCharacteristic.WRITE_TYPE_DEFAULT)
} else {
    legacyWrite(gatt, characteristic, bytes)   // @Suppress("DEPRECATION") helper: sets value, calls old API
}

• Override both onCharacteristicChanged overloads when minSdk < 33; use the value parameter on 33+.
• API 37: prefer connectGatt(BluetoothGattConnectionSettings, Executor, callback) behind a version check.

6. Always close the GATT, and treat status 133 as "close, back off, retry"

Status 133 (0x85) is a generic stack error with no public constant. It shows up on connect failures, stale caches and too many open clients.

kotlin

// BAD: reconnect on the same object, never closed, leaks a client interface per attempt
if (status != BluetoothGatt.GATT_SUCCESS) gatt.connect()

// GOOD
override fun onConnectionStateChange(gatt: BluetoothGatt, status: Int, newState: Int) {
    if (status != BluetoothGatt.GATT_SUCCESS || newState == BluetoothProfile.STATE_DISCONNECTED) {
        gatt.close()
        events.trySend(LinkEvent.Dropped(status))   // state machine schedules retry with backoff
        return
    }
    if (newState == BluetoothProfile.STATE_CONNECTED) events.trySend(LinkEvent.Connected)
}

• Backoff: for example 1 s, 2 s, 4 s, capped, with a maximum attempt count, then surface an error.
• disconnect() is asynchronous. Call close() once you no longer need the object, including after timeouts.

7. Size every write from the negotiated MTU

kotlin

// BAD: assumes 512-byte packets because MTU was "requested"
gatt.requestMtu(517); send(chunk512)

// GOOD: payload per ATT write is MTU - 3, taken from onMtuChanged
override fun onMtuChanged(gatt: BluetoothGatt, mtu: Int, status: Int) {
    maxPayload = if (status == BluetoothGatt.GATT_SUCCESS) mtu - 3 else 20
}

swift

// GOOD: iOS negotiates MTU itself; ask per write type
let maxPayload = peripheral.maximumWriteValueLength(for: .withoutResponse)

• Default ATT MTU is 23 bytes (20 bytes of payload). A single attribute value is at most 512 bytes.
• Request a high connection priority only for bulk transfer, then go back to CONNECTION_PRIORITY_BALANCED.

8. Respect flow control on writes without response

swift

// BAD: loop floods the stack; packets are dropped with no error
for chunk in chunks { peripheral.writeValue(chunk, for: tx, type: .withoutResponse) }

// GOOD
func pump() {
    while peripheral.canSendWriteWithoutResponse, let chunk = outbox.popFirst() {
        peripheral.writeValue(chunk, for: tx, type: .withoutResponse)
    }
}
func peripheralIsReady(toSendWriteWithoutResponse peripheral: CBPeripheral) { pump() }

• Android: keep no-response writes in the queue too; treat ERROR_GATT_WRITE_REQUEST_BUSY as back-pressure.
• Use writes with response, or an application-level ACK, for anything that must not be lost.

9. Model the connection as a sealed state machine

kotlin

// BAD: booleans that drift apart
var isConnected = false; var isConnecting = false; var servicesReady = false

// GOOD
sealed interface Link {
    data object Idle : Link
    data class Connecting(val attempt: Int) : Link
    data object Discovering : Link
    data class Ready(val maxPayload: Int) : Link
    data class Backoff(val attempt: Int, val reason: Int) : Link
    data class Failed(val reason: FailReason) : Link
}

swift

enum Link: Sendable { case idle, connecting(attempt: Int), discovering, ready(maxPayload: Int), backoff(attempt: Int), failed(FailReason) }

• One function computes the next state from (state, event). Illegal transitions are logged and ignored.
• Commands are only accepted in Ready. UI observes the state; it never drives callbacks directly.

10. Frame, number and check every message; never trust device input

kotlin

// BAD: length byte from the device used as-is
val len = data[1].toInt()
val payload = data.copyOfRange(2, 2 + len)

// GOOD: bounds-check every length, verify CRC, reject and count bad frames
fun parse(frame: ByteArray): Frame? {
    if (frame.size < HEADER + CRC_SIZE) return null
    val len = frame[2].toInt() and 0xFF
    if (len > MAX_PAYLOAD || HEADER + len + CRC_SIZE != frame.size) return null
    if (crc16(frame, 0, HEADER + len) != frame.readU16(HEADER + len)) return null
    return Frame(seq = frame[1].toInt() and 0xFF, payload = frame.copyOfRange(HEADER, HEADER + len))
}

• CRC16 or CRC32 detects corruption, not tampering. Authenticity needs a signature or MAC (rule 13).
• Sequence numbers detect loss, duplicates and reordering across chunked transfers.
• Layout, CRC variant and limits come from the firmware document. See Protocol and DFU.

11. Reconnect the platform way

kotlin

// BAD: background scan loop to find a known device again
while (true) { scanner.startScan(cb); delay(5_000); scanner.stopScan(cb) }

// GOOD: autoConnect for a known device; the stack waits for it to come back in range (API 37: settings overload)
gatt = device.connectGatt(context, /* autoConnect = */ true, callback, BluetoothDevice.TRANSPORT_LE)

swift

// GOOD: retrieve by stored identifier and connect; the request does not time out
if let p = central.retrievePeripherals(withIdentifiers: [savedID]).first {
    p.delegate = self
    central.connect(p)
}

• Use direct connect (autoConnect = false) for the first, user-initiated connection; it is faster.
• iOS identifiers are per-app UUIDs, not MAC addresses. Store them, do not try to derive them.

12. Keep long-lived links alive with the supported mechanism

kotlin

// BAD: start a service from a BLE callback while in the background (throws on Android 12+)
override fun onCharacteristicChanged(...) { context.startForegroundService(intent) }

// GOOD: start the connectedDevice service while the app is visible, or use Companion Device Manager
startForeground(id, notification, ServiceInfo.FOREGROUND_SERVICE_TYPE_CONNECTED_DEVICE)

xml

<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.FOREGROUND_SERVICE" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.FOREGROUND_SERVICE_CONNECTED_DEVICE" />
<service android:name=".DeviceLinkService" android:exported="false"
    android:foregroundServiceType="connectedDevice" />

• For devices that stay paired for months, prefer Companion Device Manager presence over a permanent service.
• iOS: UIBackgroundModes with bluetooth-central plus CBCentralManagerOptionRestoreIdentifierKey. A user force quit stops relaunch. Details: Android, iOS.

13. Firmware updates must never brick the device

kotlin

// BAD: blind stream, no checks, phone at 5 %, image trusted because the CRC matched
dfu.send(image)

// GOOD: preconditions, signed image verified by the bootloader, resumable, verified after reboot
require(battery.phone >= 30 && deviceInfo.battery >= 50) { "battery too low" }   // thresholds from firmware team
require(sha256(image).contentEquals(release.sha256))     // download integrity
dfu.send(image, resumeFrom = device.confirmedOffset())   // device verifies the vendor signature
check(device.reportedVersion() == release.version)

• Dual-bank or swap with rollback on the device; the old image stays bootable until the new one is confirmed.
• Never downgrade unless the firmware explicitly allows it (anti-rollback).

14. Pair securely and keep keys and personal data out of logs

kotlin

// BAD
Log.d("BLE", "connected ${device.address} key=${sessionKey.toHex()} payload=${value.toHex()}")

// GOOD: redacted identifiers, no keys, payload sizes not contents
log.debug { "connected dev=${device.address.redact()} mtu=$mtu len=${value.size}" }

• Require LE Secure Connections with Numeric Comparison, Passkey Entry or OOB. "Just Works" has no protection against man-in-the-middle during pairing.
• Encrypt and authenticate application data end to end when the link alone is not trusted.
• MAC addresses, serial numbers and device names can be personal data (GDPR). Do not ship them in analytics.

Anti-patterns

• Calling gatt.connect() again after an error instead of close() and a fresh connectGatt.
• Thread.sleep or fixed delays between GATT calls instead of a queue that waits for callbacks.
• Assuming the MTU you requested is the MTU you got.
• Catching every failure as "device not found" so status codes never reach logs or the state machine.
• Scanning without filters, without a timeout, or restarting scans every few seconds.
• Reading characteristic values from shared objects on Android 13+ instead of the callback parameter.
• Treating CRC as security, or a device's length field as trusted.
• A DFU flow that can start on low battery, cannot resume, or accepts unsigned images.
• Storing the Android MAC address as the cross-platform device ID; iOS never exposes it.
• Building a protocol from sniffed traffic and guesses instead of the firmware document.
• Declaring ACCESS_BACKGROUND_LOCATION, BLUETOOTH_PRIVILEGED or extra permissions "just in case".

Checklist

• Firmware protocol document located; every opcode, length and CRC variant traced to it
• Manifest: API 31+ permissions, legacy ones capped at maxSdkVersion="30", location only if needed
• Runtime permission and Bluetooth-off states handled with a user-visible path
• Info.plist: NSBluetoothAlwaysUsageDescription; bluetooth-central only if background is required
• Scans use filters, a time limit and stop on match
• Every GATT operation goes through one queue with a timeout
• No callback touches UI or unsynchronised state; one serial context owns the link
• Android 13+ value-carrying APIs used, with fallbacks below API 33
• close() on every disconnect, failure and timeout; status 133 retried with capped backoff
• Payload size taken from the negotiated MTU or maximumWriteValueLength(for:)
• Write-without-response respects flow control
• Connection modelled as sealed states; commands only in Ready
• Every inbound length bounds-checked; CRC verified; sequence numbers checked
• Reconnect uses autoConnect, CDM or retrievePeripherals(withIdentifiers:), not scan loops
• Foreground service type connectedDevice declared with its permission, or CDM used
• DFU: battery check, signed image verified on device, resume, rollback, version check after reboot
• Pairing uses LE Secure Connections with an authenticated method where the device supports it
• Logs and analytics contain no keys, tokens, raw payloads or unredacted device identifiers
• BLE layer behind an interface with fakes; tested on real phones from more than one vendor

Output format

For a review or design check:

markdown

## BLE review: <app / module / branch>

Scope: <files>. Platforms: <Android | iOS | Flutter>. Firmware doc: <name and version, or "missing">.

### Findings

1. [Blocker] Android -- ble/GattClient.kt:88 -- reconnect calls gatt.connect() after status 133, gatt never closed
   Why: leaks a GATT client per attempt; after a few failures every connect returns 133 until Bluetooth restarts
   Fix:
   ```kotlin
   gatt.close(); stateMachine.on(LinkEvent.Dropped(status))
   ```

2. [Major] iOS -- BLE/Central.swift:41 -- writes without response in a loop, no canSendWriteWithoutResponse check
   Why: chunks are dropped silently during DFU
   Fix: pump from peripheralIsReady(toSendWriteWithoutResponse:)

### Protocol
| Check | Status | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Length fields bounds-checked | Missing | `FrameParser.kt:22` trusts `data[1]` |
| CRC verified on every frame | Met | `Crc16.kt`, CRC-16/CCITT-FALSE per firmware doc 2.3 |

### Manifest, Info.plist and background changes
- <permission / key / service type added or required, with store-review impact>

### Questions
- <anything the firmware document does not define>

### Verdict
Request changes -- 1 Blocker, 1 Major.

Severity: Blocker (bricked device, data corruption, security or privacy breach, crash), Major (lost data, stuck connection, battery drain, wrong behaviour on common phones), Minor, Nit. For a new protocol, the agent fills the protocol checklist from Protocol and DFU instead.

Related skills

• mobile-security -- MASVS checks for pairing, key storage, logging and exported components
• mobile-eu-compliance -- CRA and EN 18031 duties for companion apps, secure update evidence
• mobile-kotlin, mobile-swift, mobile-flutter -- language rules for the BLE layer code
• mobile-testing -- fakes, virtual time and device-lab strategy
• mobile-performance -- battery cost of scans, connection priority and background work
• mobile-code-review -- general review dimensions alongside the BLE-specific findings